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Received September 13, 2025
Revised November 1, 2025
Accepted November 10, 2025
Available online March 25, 2026
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This is an Open-Access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution Non-Commercial License (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/bync/3.0) which permits
unrestricted non-commercial use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited.
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Transition Metals Impregnated Red mud-derived Catalysts for the Valorization of Alkali Lignin to Monomeric Phenols
https://doi.org/10.1007/s11814-025-00605-y
Abstract
Lignin, a major byproduct of biorefi nery processes, represents a promising renewable resource for producing phenolic
compounds, off ering a sustainable alternative to petrochemical-derived chemicals. This study investigated the eff ects of
transition metals loaded industrial-waste red mud (RM)-derived catalysts (Co/RM, Cu/RM, and Ni/RM) for the hydrothermal
liquefaction of alkali lignin. The results revealed the eff ective breaking of the lignin structure with the Co/RM
catalyst for the maximum bio-oil production (20.7 wt%) at 250 ℃/15 min. The maximum conversion (40.3%) was determined
with Cu/RM catalyst, with a high proportion of gas yield (26.6 wt%). GC-MS analysis revealed the promotion of
demethoxylation with the utilization of a catalyst by a signifi cant decrease in the selectivity for methoxy phenols. The high
HHV value (31.8 MJkg − 1 ) of catalytic bio-oil (Co/RM-250) exhibits the upgradation of lignin into high-calorifi c bio-oil.
The utilization of byproduct char (Co-RM-250) was also examined for the adsorption of pharmaceutical pollutants, such as
tetracycline, which showed a maximum adsorption of 23% without any further pretreatment of Co/RM immobilized char.
