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- korean
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- In relation to this article, we declare that there is no conflict of interest.
- Publication history
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Received February 23, 2026
Revised April 11, 2026
Accepted May 20, 2027
Available online May 31, 2026
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This is an Open-Access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution Non-Commercial License (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/bync/3.0) which permits
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Level-set volume-of-fluid computational fluid dynamics (CFD)를 이용한 NiBiSe 합금 기반 액체금속 기포탑의 수력학적 거동
Hydrodynamics of NiBiSe Alloy-based Molten-metal Bubble Columns Using Level-set Volume-of-fluid Computation Fluid Dynamics (CFD)
1한경국립대학교 2호치민시 산업대학교 3에너지전환기술연구소
1Hankyong National University 2Industrial University of Ho Chi Minh City 3KOGAS Research Institute
limyi@hknu.ac.kr
Korean Chemical Engineering Research, August 2026, 64(3), 105168
https://doi.org/10.9713/kcer.2026.64.3.105168
https://doi.org/10.9713/kcer.2026.64.3.105168
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Abstract
액체금속 기포탑은 고온에서 운전되고, 반응기 내부의 불투명성으로 인하여 실험적으로 수력학적 특성을 파악하는 것이 쉽지 않다. 본 연구는
level-set volume-of-fluid (LS-VOF) 모델 기반의 computational fluid dynamics
(CFD)를 이용하여 삼원소 합금인 액체 NiBiSe과 메탄기체를 사용하는 액체금속 기포탑에서 표면장력과 접촉각 변화에 따른 수력학적 특성을 조사하였다. 3개의 서로 다른 Selenium
(Se) 함량(0, 1, 그리고 5 mol%)을 갖는 NiBiSe에 대하여 표면장력(
It is impractical
to experimentally characterize hydrodynamics of molten-metal bubble columns
(MMBCs) operated at high temperatures due to intrinsic opacity. This study investigated
hydrodynamics of MMBCs with tertiary NiBiSe alloys and CH4 gas using
a computational fluid dynamics (CFD) model based on level-set volume-of-fluid
(LS-VOF), changing surface tension (s) and contact angle (q). s of NiBiSe alloys containing
0, 1, and 5 mol% Selenium
(Se) was 0.389, 0.317, and 0.31 N/m, respectively, while q was set to 120° and 150°. The six simulation
cases were conducted in a rectangular MMBC with a centrally located bottom nozzle
(diameter: 3.18 mm) at a superficial gas velocity of 0.39 mm/s under the
bubbling flow regime. The time-averaged gas holdup (
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(2021).
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2. Abdin, Z., Zafaranloo, A., Rafiee, A., Mérida, W., Lipiński, W. and Khalilpour, K. R., “Hydrogen as an Energy Vector,” Renew. Sustain. Energy Rev., 120, 109620(2020).
3. Msheik, M., Rodat, S. and Abanades, S., “Methane Cracking for Hydrogen Production: A Review of Catalytic and Molten Media Pyrolysis,” Energies, 14(11), 3107(2021).
4. Pérez, B. J. L., Jiménez, J. A. M., Bhardwaj, R., Goetheer, E., van Sint Annaland, M. and Gallucci, F., “Methane Pyrolysis in a Molten Gallium Bubble Column Reactor for Sustainable Hydro- gen Production: Proof of Concept & Techno-Economic Assess- ment,” Int. J. Hydrogen Energy, 46(7), 4917-4935(2021).
5. Go, E.-S., Kang, S.-Y., Seo, S.-B., Kim, H.-W. and Lee, S.-H., “Slug Characteristics in a Bubbling Fluidized Bed Reactor for Polymerization Reaction,” Korean Chem. Eng. Res., 58(4), 651- 657(2020).
6. Catalan, L. J. and Rezaei, E., “Coupled Hydrodynamic and Kinetic Model of Liquid Metal Bubble Reactor for Hydrogen Production by Noncatalytic Thermal Decomposition of Meth- ane,” Int. J. Hydrogen Energy, 45(4), 2486-2503(2020).
7. Plevan, M., Geißler, T., Abánades, A., Mehravaran, K., Rathnam, R. K., et al., “Thermal Cracking of Methane in a Liquid Metal Bubble Column Reactor: Experiments and Kinetic Analysis,” Int. J. Hydrogen Energy, 40(25), 8020-8033(2015).
8. Upham, D. C., Agarwal, V., Khechfe, A., Snodgrass, Z. R., Gor- don, M. J., Metiu, H. and McFarland, E. W., “Catalytic Molten Metals for the Direct Conversion of Methane to Hydrogen and Separable Carbon,” Science, 358(6365), 917-921(2017).
9. Gunarayu, M. R., Abdul Patah, M. F. and Ashri Wan Daud, W. M., “Advancements in Methane Pyrolysis: A Comprehensive Review of Parameters and Molten Catalysts in Bubble Column Reac- tors,” Renew. Sustain. Energy Rev., 210, 115197(2025).
10. Park, D.-K., Park, S.-N., Kim, H.-J., Kim, H.-S., Kim, J.-H. and Ryu, J.-H., “Research on the Production of Turquoise Hydrogen from Methane (Ch4) through Plasma Reaction,” Energies, 17(2), 484(2024).
11. Oh, J., Park, Y., Nzisso, K. A. C., Yu, S. and Cho, S., “Analysis of Technological Advancements and Integration Potential of Hydrogen Production, Storage, and Utilization for Achieving Car- bon Neutrality,” Korean Chem. Eng. Res., 63(4), 105139(2025).
12. Le, B. T., Ngo, S. I., Lim, Y.-I. and Lee, U.-D., “One-Dimensional Kinetic Model with Heat Transfer and Axial Dispersion of Mol- ten-Metal Bubble Column Reactors for Hydrogen Production Via Methane Pyrolysis,” Int. J. Hydrogen Energy, 48(92), 35821- 35837(2023).
13. Ngo, S. I., Lim, Y.-I., Kwon, H. M. and Lee, U.-D., “Hydrody- namics of Molten-Metal Bubble Columns in the near-Bubbling Field Using Volume of Fluid Computational Fluid Dynamics,” Chem. Eng. J., 454, 140073(2023).
14. Nguyen, L. X., Ngo, S. I., Lim, Y.-I., Go, K.-S. and Nho, N.-S., “Hydrodynamics of Gas-Liquid Bubble Columns under Bubbling, Transient, and Jetting Flow Regimes Using Volume of Fluid Computa- tional Fluid Dynamics,” Chem. Eng. Res. Des., 182, 616-628(2022).
15. Bui, H. T. H., Ngo, S. I., Lim, Y.-I., Lee, U.-D. and Lee, Y., “Hydrody- namics of Ch4-Sn Molten-Metal Bubble Columns under Elec- tromagnetic Field Using Computational Fluid Dynamics,” Chem.Eng. Sci., 286, 119668(2024).
16. Ngo, S. I., Thi Hong Bui, H., Lim, Y.-I., Lee, U.-D., Lee, Y. and Kim, S. W., “Effect of Gas Distributors on Hydrodynamics in Molten-Metal Bubble Column Reactors for Fluorinated Gas Removal Using Computational Fluid Dynamics,” Chem. Eng. Res. Des., 208, 436-445(2024).
17. Ali, M., Ngo, S. I., Lim, Y.-I., Lee, U.-D. and Kang, Y.-B., “Cat- alytic and Non-Catalytic Reactions of Methane Pyrolysis for Hydrogen Production in Screening and Electromagnetic Levita- tion Reactors Using Computational Fluid Dynamics,” Journal of Industrial and Engineering Chemistry, 144, 370-379(2025).
18. Le, D. K., Lee, M. J. and Kwon, H., “Bubble Dynamics Modeling with a Chemical Reaction for Methane Pyrolysis in Molten Tin Via Computational Fluid Dynamics,” Int. J. Hydrogen Energy, 139, 454-466(2025).
19. Ngo, S. I., Lim, Y.-I., Lee, U.-D., Lee, Y. and Kim, S. W., “Effects of Wettability on Bubble Characteristics in Air-Water and Molten- Metal Bubble Columns Using Level-Set Volume-of-Fluid Com- putational Fluid Dynamics,” Int. J. Multiphase Flow, 192, 105369
(2025).
20. Kumar, R. and Premachandran, B., “A Coupled Level Set and Volume of Fluid Method for Three Dimensional Unstructured Polyhedral Meshes for Boiling Flows,” Int. J. Multiphase Flow, 156, 104207(2022).
21. Nichita, B. A., Zun, I. and Thome, J. R., “A Level Set Method Coupled with a Volume of Fluid Method for Modeling of Gas- Liquid Interface in Bubbly Flow,” J. Fluids Eng., 132(8), (2010).
22. Sun, D. and Tao, W., “A Coupled Volume-of-Fluid and Level Set (Voset) Method for Computing Incompressible Two-Phase Flows,” Int. J. Heat Mass Transfer, 53(4), 645-655(2010).
23. Sánchez‐Bastardo, N., Schlögl, R. and Ruland, H., “Methane Pyrolysis for Co2‐Free H2 Production: A Green Process to Over- come Renewable Energies Unsteadiness,” Chem. Ing. Tech., 92(10), 1596-1609(2020).
24. Stoppel, L., Fehling, T., Geißler, T., Baake, E. and Wetzel, T., “Carbon Dioxide Free Production of Hydrogen,” IOP Conf. Ser.: Mater. Sci. Eng., 228, 012016(2017).
25. Sano, M. and Mori, K., “Size of Bubbles in Energetic Gas Injec- tion into Liquid Metal,” Trans. Iron Steel Inst. Jpn., 20(10), 675- 681(1980).
26. Baake, E., Fehling, T., Musaeva, D. and Steinberg, T., “Neutron Radiography for Visualization of Liquid Metal Processes: Bub- bly Flow for Co2 Free Production of Hydrogen and Solidifica- tion Processes in Em Field,” IOP Conf. Ser.: Mater. Sci. Eng., 228, 012026(2017).
27. Zhao, Z., Feng, Y., Schwarz, M. P., Witt, P. J., Wang, Z. and Cook- sey, M., “Numerical Modeling of Flow Dynamics in the Aluminum Smelting Process: Comparison between Air–Water and Co2– Cryolite Systems,” Metall. Mater. Trans. B, 48(2), 1200-1216(2017).
28. Chaumat, H., Billet, A. M. and Delmas, H., “Hydrodynamics and Mass Transfer in Bubble Column: Influence of Liquid Phase Surface Tension,” Chem. Eng. Sci., 62(24), 7378-7390(2007).
29. Saito, T., Sakakibara, K., Miyamoto, Y. and Yamada, M., “A Study of Surfactant Effects on the Liquid-Phase Motion around a Zigzagging-Ascent Bubble Using a Recursive Cross-Correla- tion Piv,” Chem. Eng. J., 158(1), 39-50(2010).
30. Son, J. H., Park, G., Lee, D.-H., Lee, Y., Yun, Y. S., Park, J. H., Seo,J.-C. and Han, S. J., “Selenium-Promoted Molten Metal Catalysts for Methane Pyrolysis: Modulating Surface Tension and Catalytic Activity,” Appl. Catal., B Environ., 366, 125009(2025).
31. Gallois, B. M., “Wetting in Nonreactive Liquid Metal-Oxide Systems,” JOM, 49, 48-51(1997).
32. Laurent, V., Chatain, D. and Eustathopoulos, N., “Wettability of Sio2 and Oxidized Sic by Aluminium,” Mater. Sci. Eng., A, 135, 89-94(1991).
33. Yang, J.-H., Hur, Y.-G., Lee, H.-T., Yang, J.-I., Kim, H.-J., Chun, D.-H., Park, J.-C. and Jung, H., “The Effect of Partitioning Porous Plate on Bubble Behavior and Gas Hold-up in a Bench Scale (0.36 M × 22 M) Trayed Bubble Column,” Korean Chem. Eng. Res., 50(3), 505-510(2012).
34. Elton, E. S., Reeve, T. C., Thornley, L. E., Joshipura, I. D., Paul, P. H., Pascall, A. J. and Jeffries, J. R., “Dramatic Effect of Oxide on Measured Liquid Metal Rheology,” J. Rheol., 64(1), 119- 128(2020).
35. Guthrie, R. I., The Physical Properties of Liquid Metals, ed., (1987).
36. Klein, M., Ketterl, S. and Hasslberger, J., “Large Eddy Simula- tion of Multiphase Flows Using the Volume of Fluid Method: Part 1—Governing Equations and a Priori Analysis,” Exp. Com- put. Multiph. Flow, 1(2), 130-144(2019).
37. Lim, Y.-I., “State-of-Arts in Multiscale Simulation for Process Development,” Korean Chem. Eng. Res., 51(1), 10-24(2013).
38. Hirt, C. W. and Nichols, B. D., “Volume of Fluid (Vof) Method for the Dynamics of Free Boundaries,” J. Comput. Phys., 39(1), 201-225(1981).
39. Sussman, M., Smereka, P. and Osher, S., “A Level Set Approach for Computing Solutions to Incompressible Two-Phase Flow,” J. Comput. Phys., 114(1), 146-159(1994).
40. Brackbill, J. U., Kothe, D. B. and Zemach, C., “A Continuum Method for Modeling Surface Tension,” J. Comput. Phys., 100(2), 335-354(1992).
41. Nichita, B. A., Zun, I. and Thome, J. R., “A Level Set Method Coupled with a Volume of Fluid Method for Modeling of Gas- Liquid Interface in Bubbly Flow,” J. Fluids Eng., 132, 081302 (2010).
42. Fard, M. G., Vernet, A., Stiriba, Y. and Grau, X., “Transient Large- Scale Two-Phase Flow Structures in a 3d Bubble Column Reac- tor,” Int. J. Multiphase Flow, 127, 103236(2020).
43. Mori, K., Sano, M. and Sato, T., “Size of Bubbles Formed at Single Nozzle Immersed in Molten Iron,” Trans. Iron Steel Inst. Jpn., 19(9), 553-558(1979).
44. Lim, Y.-I., Park, C.-K., Lee, B.-D., Kim, B.-G. and Lim, D.-H., “Three-Phase Eulerian Computational Fluid Dynamics (Cfd) of Air-Water-Oil Separator with Coalescer,” Korean Chem. Eng. Res., 55(2), 201-213(2017).
45. Kaptay, G., “A Unified Equation for the Viscosity of Pure Liq- uid Metals,” Int. J. Mater. Res., 96(1), 24-31(2021).
46. Schneider, S., Bajohr, S., Graf, F. and Kolb, T., “State of the Art of Hydrogen Production Via Pyrolysis of Natural Gas,” ChemBi- oEng Rev., 7(5), 150-158(2020).
47. Tran, B. V., Ngo, S. I., Lim, Y.-I., Pham, H. H., Lim, S.-H., Go, K.-S. and Nho, N.-S., “Estimation of Physical Properties and Hydrodynamics of Slurry Bubble Column Reactor for Catalytic Hydrocracking of Vacuum Residue,” Chem. Eng. J., 418, 129378
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